2. Areca nut production data for India for the year 2019-20

 

As per the report published by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, only 11 nations are producing areca nut globally.   The global areca nut production was 22.11 lakh tonnes in 2020.  Among all the nations, India is the major producer, contributing 62.5 % to the global areca nut production in 2020.

As per the report published by Directorate of Areca nut and Spices, Calicut, total areca nut production in India in 2019-20 was 13,52,761 tonnes. Whereas, as per Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, areca nut produced in India in 2020 was 13,82,000. There was a data inconsistency to the tune of 29,239 tonnes.

As per the report published by Directorate of Areca nut and Spices Calicut, Karnataka state alone contributes about 80% to the Indian production and the closest competitor is Kerala with a mere 6.86% contribution.

State-wise areca nut production for the year 2019-20, is as follows.

1. Current status of global Areca nut production

 

As per the most recent report published by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, only 11 nations are producing areca nut globally.   As per the report, total areca nut production was 22.11 lakh Tonnes of areca nut in 2020 which is a whopping 21.9% increase compared to 2019 production figures. Similarly, areca nut production in 2019 had clocked about 17.4% increase compared to 2018 production figures. There is a significant year on years increase in the global areca nut production.  

Among all the nations, India is the major producer, contributing 62.5 % to the global areca nut production in 2020. Bangladesh and Myanmar are the other two major producers. All the three countries together contributed for 86.7% of world areca nut production in 2020 and 83.6% in 2019.

Among the 11 nations listed by FAO, China & Taiwan, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Nepal, had contributed 19.1% of the global areca nut production in 2018.  Total tonnage of areca nut produced in those countries remained more or less constant over 2018 to 2020 (at about 2,75,000 Tonnes). Whereas their contribution decreased to 12.5 % in 2020, showing a dip of 6.6% global share compared to 2018 figures. This is due to the massive increase in areca nut production in India. The total tonnage in India increased from 8,33,000 Tonnes in 2018 to 13,82,000 Tonnes in 2020.

Among all the areca nut producing nations, India is the leading producer and showed a massive 53.38% increase in areca nut production in 2020 compared to its previous year. Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Myanmar and Sri Lanka too showed a steady increase in areca nut production year on year. However, the areca nut production is more or less stable in China/Taiwan. On the contrary, areca nut production in Thailand is showing a steady decreasing trend during 2018 to 2020.

Interestingly, nations like Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Laos which are known to produce and consume areca nut are not figured in the report published by FAO. Perhaps, due to the insignificant production figures & acreage of areca nut plantations, their names have been omitted.

The detailed data is presented in the following table. The data was compiled from the detailed reports of production of crops & live stocks of East Asian countries published by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) in March 2022.

Please note: Complete data on the global areca nut production for the year 2021 and beyond, is not yet been made available by FAO, United Nations. As and when the data is available, it will be discussed in my Blog. 

9. Names of Areca nut & Betel leaf in various languages and countries

Areca nut and Betel leaf has multiple names in each region and languages due to historical reasons, cultural connections, prevailing practices and evolution of languages. Multiple names for areca nut and betel leaves are found in Sanskrit language. In India, numerous names are there in each region and languages. Among the southeast Asian countries, more number of names are there in Indonesia and Philippines, perhaps due to the antiquity of their use in those countries. 

 

8. Introduction of Tobacco to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia

 

A remarkable change in the consumption pattern of Tambula (Betel quid) appeared to have occurred in the 17th century due to the introduction of Tobacco to the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia. Tobacco became an important adjunct along with Katha and spices to the Tambula. Due to the addictive nature of Tobacco, the frequency of chewing Tambula also increased many folds’ contrary to the common practice of eating Tambula after the meal.

Until about 1590, tobacco and its products were virtually unknown to the Indian subcontinent. Tobacco introduced from American continent through European traders became a major crop within few decades of its introduction. The story of rapid expansion of tobacco cultivation and trade is a fascinating story of Indian economic history.

Christopher Columbus came across tobacco, when he arrived in Cuba accidently in 1492, while he was trying to discover India. He witnessed the natives smoking some dry herb called by the name “Tobaco” and “Tombac” in rituals and feast for pleasure. Later, Spanish explorers saw tobacco agriculture in “Tabasco” region in Mexico by Mayan people. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to Europe in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. Tobacco expanded in Africa in 1560s by Spanish and Portuguese sailors, first to the coastal cities of continent and then from there to the eastern and middle African countries.

As per historic evidence, tobacco cultivation was initially introduced into two separate areas of India, the present state of Gujarat (Surat-Broach area) and the state of Andhra Pradesh (Masulipatam and interior) before 1,600 AD. The custom of smoking tobacco (Hokah) spread rapidly in Mughal India after its introduction in 1604 or 1605. The cultivation and use of tobacco, proved to be a rich source of revenue for Mughals.

A British traveler Thomas Bowrey, documented widespread use of tobacco in India and parts of South- east Asia during 1669 and 1679 CE. As per his book, tobacco used to be included among items given in gift to the faquirs (holy men) in northern India, and on the Coromandel coast it was served with the betel leaf and at all Hindu weddings. As per him, it was farmed in the Andhra region and around Madras and exported to Achin in Sumatra & Java and Persian Gulf-Red Sea area.

The cultivation of tobacco which initially began in the Gujarat and Andhra regions, quickly spread to other areas of the country. During Jahangir's reign tobacco farming "began to predominate over other crops" and soon the crop was grown almost everywhere. Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, as well as northern and central India in general saw the growth of tobacco cultivation through the seventeenth century. By the end of the seventeenth century the consumption of tobacco, either through smoking or chewing with Tambula, had spread throughout the diverse strata of Indian society. Tobacco had become almost a necessity as much for the aristocrat as the poor man and this domestic demand stimulated production. The profits of tobacco farming were substantial for both the farmers who grew it and the government that collected taxes from it.

Historical evidences suggest the use of Tobacco for smoking in various forms (Cigar, Hookah) or consumption in the form of Snuff. The whole of western world and Gulf nations including Mughals were consuming the tobacco for smoking or as snuff. How and when the use of Tobacco or its products as adjuncts in Tambula, came to practice is worth investigating. 

7. History of Areca nut / Tambula (Betel quid) consumption in Southeast Asian countries

 

From linguistic, archaeological, literary, and oral sources, it can be concluded that Tambula chewing was practiced in South-East Asia in prehistoric times. From the beginning centuries of the common era (CE) its use spread throughout the region, and from the tenth century onwards, it appears Tambula was an integral part of various rituals and social gatherings. During the Dynasties of Jin (1115–1234 CE) and Yuan (1279–1368 CE) in China, there were evidence of introduction of areca nut pills (Called Muxiang Binglong Pill) for reinforcing vital energy.

Recent excavations at Quseir al-Qadim, an ancient port located on the Red Sea coast of Egypt, proved the existence of a large-scale trade of areca nuts during 11-13 Century CE. Considering the fact that Quseir al-Qadim lies in the main transit route of Islamic trade between South and South-East Asia and North Africa, the Mediterranean and Europe, it is the only evidence available on the use of Areca nuts in the western countries in the medieval period.

By the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the chewing of Tambula was established virtually everywhere in tropical Asia. It was a symbol of indispensable politeness to be offered to a guest in court or village, and as a central ritual symbol, as digestive, dentifrice and mouth freshener, and as the relaxant that made life more bearable-especially when traveling, warring, or otherwise short of food. Areca nut and betel leaf frequently accompanied the dead during funerals. Betel chewing and its ingredients were featured widely in healing rituals and practices, in offerings to the ubiquitous spirits of the dead, and in every social and ritual function. Areca nut and betel leaves were the essentials of every ritual of courtship and marriage. At the marriage ceremony itself the betel ingredients are usually presented as part of the bride-price. In Malay and Sumatran weddings in the nineteenth century, an ornate "Areca tree" comprised of betel leaves was carried in procession.

6. Evidences of Areca nut /Tambula (Betel quid) antiquity in Southeast Asian countries.

It was a common belief that areca nut and the practice of Tambula chewing is native to India. However, recent philological (based on linguistic studies) and archaeological evidence casts doubt on this theory. However, the literary evidence continues to support an Indian origin.

The earliest archaeological evidence of areca nut use was found in “Spirit Cave” in north-western Thailand. Radiocarbon dating of areca nuts found in those caves confirmed that they belong to an era of 8776 to 7622 BCE (Before Common Era). Linguistically, the widest range of words for ‘areca’ and ‘betel’ are found in Indonesia, suggesting a possibility of origin in the region. Sireh, the most widespread name for ‘betel’ in Malaysia, is not derived from either Sanskrit/Pali or Indonesian roots, suggesting a possible independent development in Malaysia. Chinese references go as far back as a second century BCE. describing of Tambula chewing in Vietnam. By the T'ang period (618 - 907 CE), numerous Chinese references on the use and export of areca nut from the Indonesian archipelago are available. The fact that the Chinese term for areca nut since at least T'ang times was “pin-lang”. Perhaps this term was derived from Malay “pinang” suggests that the area then dominated by Malay-speaking Sri Vijaya (Ruling Sumatra, Malaya, western Borneo) was the major source of this commodity.

A Chinese chronicle of the first half of the sixth century (Book 54 of the History of the Liang Dynasty) mention areca nut consumption in Indonesia. Persian descriptions of Tambula chewing appeared in Indian literature of the eighth and ninth centuries. From the tenth century onwards, literary sources provide plenty of evidence that Tambula was widely used in the region. Champa (Vietnam) gave tribute to China in the form of areca nuts in the tenth and eleventh centuries. The book purportedly written at the end of the thirteenth century by king Ramkamhaeng, of the Sukhothai Kingdom in Thailand, says ‘The people of this land of Sukhothai... celebrate the Kathina (Buddhist festival celebrating the end of Monsoon rains) ceremonies... with heaps of areca nuts”. The symbolical use of Tambula in Cambodia, for example, can be traced to a legendary Prince Prah Thong who marries a serpent princess. She gives the prince a Tambula as a pledge of her trust, and since this time Tambula has been used in Cambodia to bond relationships.

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5. Tambula (Betel quid) consumption during Mughal era in India

 

Tambula was a favorite pastime of elite and royal family during Moghul era as well.  Often the top-quality ingredients of Tambula (Areca nut, betel leaf, slaked lime, Catechu extract and selected spices) were used as royal gifts, exchanged between the various kings and emperors. The areca nut with betel leaf was also used along with flowers and perfumed water while welcoming guests and was the part of return gift to the departing visitor. The Royal patronage to Tambula in the Indian subcontinent is evident from the travelogues of Ibn Battuta, Abdul Piezzak and Niccolao Manucci (seventeenth century). Niccolao Manucci refers to the allocation of revenue of Surat by emperor Shahjahan for his daughter to meet her expenses on Tambula. He also mentions betel leaves were carried to Persia by the designated ambassador of Aurangzeb. Shahbaj Khan, a Subedar of Thane (1416 AD) issued official orders forcing the practice of offering Tambula to a Brahmin as a mark of honour and a sign of betrothal. Tambula chewing 'prevailed especially among the nobles and magnates and kings', observed Marco Polo in the thirteenth century. Old chronicles describe the meeting and exchange of Tambula between Ahom viceroy in Western Assam, Satrajita and Emperor Aurangzeb.

In Ain-I-Akbari, Abul Fazal elaborates the cultivation practices of betel leaf and provides description and properties of Bilhari, Kaker, Jaiswar, Kapuri, Kapukant, and Bangla varieties. As per his book, those variety of betel leaves with slaked lime (made out of oyster shells), catechu extract, slices of areca nut, ambergris, musk, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, and oyster shells at specified quantity make a perfectly balanced parcel of Tambula. Mughal manuals and pharmacopoeias specify the exact proportion in which the above-listed ingredients should be mixed to produce a perfectly balanced taste, aroma and mouth feel. As per those manuals, Tambula functions as mouth fresheners (mukhavasa) that adorned the breath with a sweet fragrance and thereby provide gladness to the heart, reduces stress and strengthens intellect. 

The celebrations of feasts and festivities in the Mughal imperial’s household was one of the sources of enjoyment and merry making to the emperors as well as their women folk. Feasts were an important part of all Mughal ceremonies, festivals and other occasions. Often, the royal ladies passed the monotony of their lives by welcoming the guests. Tambula (pan) was the favorite items of reception given to the guests of the royal ladies. Whenever the wives of the nobles visited the ladies of emperor’s household, they were offered sweet drinks (sherbet) and Tambula (pan) by the royal ladies.

Abdul Rezzak of Herat, the ambassador from Samarkand (Uzbekistan) to the court of Deva Raya –II of Vijayanagar kingdom in 1443 CE, attributed the virility of king to his habit of chewing Tambula. He writes: "It deserves its reputation ... it lightens up the countenance and excites an intoxication like that caused by wine. It relieves hunger, stimulates the organs of digestion, disinfects breath, and strengthens the teeth. It is impossible to describe, and delicacy forbids me to expatiate on its invigorating and aphrodisiac qualities".

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4. Rules for Tambula (Betel quid) consumption as per ancient Indian treatises

 

Due to numerous health benefits, its social acceptance, popularity and the associated religious sanctity, Tambula consumption was widespread among the general public and nobles. Elaborate rules were also formulated on the consumption and use of Tambula and its ingredients.

Custom of removing the mid rib, tip and the petiole of betel leaf before applying lime came to practice. It was recommended to spit the saliva twice, while chewing Tambula.  The first mouthful of saliva was considered poison and the second one was difficult to digest and thereafter it can be swallowed and believed to be useful to the body.

Texts indicate that those fasting as a penance or as part of a regime of regular religious observances (for example, ekādaśī) are not to eat Tambula as per Dharmasindhu (1790 CE). Further, Itihāsopaniṣad, states that a person giving funeral oblations to his ancestors should not consume Tambula, although the deceased ancestor(s) may be offered Tambula. As per Dharmaśāstra, ascetics, widows, and those performing penance or rites for their deceased ancestors should not consume Tambula. Vṛddha Hārīta (Approximately 900 CE) prescribes that a widow should give up adorning her hair, chewing Tambula, and taking two meals a day, and should rather wear a white garment, rein in her senses, and so on. Tambula consumption was forbidden for the persons suffering from gum damage, tooth decay, eye ailments, hysteria, mental disorder and rakt-pitta as per Bhavaprakasha written by Bhavamisra.

King Someswara III of the Chalukya dynasty, who ruled Southern India (AD 1122-1133) has written an encyclopedic text called Manasollasa.  In that he has listed twenty types of royal enjoyments. Among them perfumes and scented articles were used in Snaana bhogah (enjoyment of bath), Tambula bhogah (enjoyment of betel leaf chewing), Vilepana bhogah (enjoyment of anointing the body), Maalyopabhogah (enjoyment of flower garlanding) and Dhupa bhogah (enjoyment of incense). He has given an elaborate account of Tambula bhogah. It says, areca-nuts obtained from Nailaavartti, Isvarpura and Kandikapura were considered best. Betel leaves collected from one-year-old creeper nourished with river water are considered best. Areca nuts were dried in shade and perfumed with Musk water. Musk camphor, Kakkola (Piper cubeba also called tailed/ Java pepper), nutmeg, Khadirasara (Catechu powder) blended with musk, sandal and camphor water were used as ingredients of Tambula.

Jyotirnibandha written by Shivraj in AD 1524, prescribes that three parts nut, two parts betel leaf, one-part catechu and lime make an ideal Tambula. Apparently, the composition prescribed is based on weight. As per this treatise, the Tambula prepared as per this formula, shall produce pungency, bitterness, heat, sweetness, saltiness, power to remove vata, possess antiseptic character, remove phlegm, excite passion, beautify the mouth, purify the mouth, and remove all bad odour from the mouth. The work also indicates that different numbers of areca nut consumption confer differing outcomes: one produces happiness; two bear's fruit; three brings loss; four causes pain of misery; six causes death. It also contains series of rules about the appropriate numbers of Tambula to be included for distinct ranks of recipient: 32 for the king; 24 for a tributary prince; 18 for a son-in-law; 12 for a learned man; 10 for a bride; 8 for all respectable people; 4 for ordinary people; 6 for enemies.

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3. Historical evidence of widespread consumption of Tambula (Betel quid) in India.

 

Tambula (aka, Betel quid) consumption was also associated with the social status, and receiving areca nut with betel leaves from nobles and kings was considered as an honour. Banabhatta, the scholar in the court of emperor Harsha Vardhana, who reigned during 606–647 CE in north India, has given a vivid description of poets, writers, dramatists and other creative artists receiving Tambula from the emperor as a token of appreciation and honour in his book, Kadambari. The Jyotirnibandha composed no later than 1524 CE, specifies the number of betel leaves to be given based on the ranks of the recipient: 32 for the king; 24 for a tributary prince; 18 for a son-in-law; 12 for a learned man; 10 for a bride; eight for all respectable people; four for ordinary people; six for enemies.

Just after 630 CE, the Chinese pilgrim Hsiuan-tsang arrived at the monastic university of Nalanda to study of Sanskrit and Buddhism. In the biography of Hsiuan-tsang it was written that he was welcomed by the senior Master of the Law, Silabhadra. He was lodged on the fourth story of Buddhabhadra's house, in the courtyard of king Baladitya's college. After having been entertained for seven days, he was assigned a quarters in a guest house to the north of the house of Dharmapala Bodhisattva and his daily perquisites were increased. Every day he was provided with 120 betel leaf-bunches, 20 areca nuts, 20 nutmegs, one ounce of camphor, and one shang measure of mahasala rice. This is evidence that even the scholars studying in one of the best research University in the world at that time were chewing Tambula regularly. Apparently, it was not only a privilege but was also a legitimate practice followed by the renowned scholars during that time.

The extent of Tambula consumption could be assessed by the volume of trade happening at that time. A work of the Gupta period (4-6^th Century CE) called Jambu-dvipa-prajñapti has enumerated eighteen prominent types of merchants. Tamoli (Tambula sellers) were figured in that list along with kumbhãra (potters), pattalla (silk-weavers), suvarnakãra (gold-smith), súpakãra (hoteliers), gandharva (perfumers or singers), kasavana (barber) etc. This clearly shows the importance and the volume of areca nut, betel leaf trade happening in ancient India. The famous Mandasor Silk Weavers’ inscription dated AD 473, reads “Now women-folk may be young and lovely, and they may have the customary garland and Tambula and flowers to hand, but they will never go to meet a lover in the trysting place unless they have first put on their two-piece garment of silk”.

Over the years, the Tambula attained a status of sanctity as well and found place in all the ritualistic practices. The inscriptions and various treatise reveal that it received a religious sanction of use in rituals and ceremonies and became an integral part of offerings to the priests and god. It is about the same time (750 to 962 AD) the area of cultivation of areca nut and betel vines expanded in south India in order to meet the ever increasing demand. They also became an important commodity of trade and commerce and earned significant revenue to the royal treasury. Due to the enormous economic importance of areca nut and betel leaf, and the availability of royal patronage, perhaps a significant effort has gone into the development of systematic agro-practices for their cultivation.

Kalidasa (5^th century CE), in his Raghuvamsa while describing the march of Raghu, says that after defeating the king of Kalinga, Raghu proceeded towards the south along the coast which was adorned with areca nut trees indicating wide spread cultivation of areca plantation in coastal Orissa.

Kashyapiyakrishisukti by Kashyapa (800 AD) has given information on growing betel vine on high ground and betel nut on marshy land and also in gardens. Vrikshayurveda of Surapala (1000 AD) points out that the areca nut plants should be carefully planted at a distance of two to three fore-arms. The treatise also warns that closer planting might result in reduction in the yield, while planting at farther distance exposes to danger of strong winds. Further, the trees like coconut and betel nut bear fruit when manured with the powder of a fish and sesame.

Instances of granting land and betel leaves to the god are found in ancient inscriptions. For example, an inscription from 1166 CE records a land grant for betel leaf production for the god Chenna Keśava (Inscription 13, lines 66–9, Kundangar 1939: 112). An inscription dated 1135 CE mentions a gift of 500 betel leaves for service to the god Jakkeśvara (Inscription 232, Hultzsch 1939: 236–7). Another inscription dated 1235 CE details that the Yādava King Singhaṇadeva gave a grant for the betel leaves of the god Bhāvaśuddhadeva (Inscription 18, line 64, Kundangar 1939: 153).

 

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