A remarkable change in the
consumption pattern of Tambula (Betel quid) appeared to have occurred in the 17th century
due to the introduction of Tobacco to the Indian subcontinent and southeast
Asia. Tobacco became an important adjunct along with Katha and spices to the
Tambula. Due to the addictive nature of Tobacco, the frequency of chewing
Tambula also increased many folds’ contrary to the common practice of eating
Tambula after the meal.
Until about 1590, tobacco
and its products were virtually unknown to the Indian subcontinent. Tobacco
introduced from American continent through European traders became a major crop
within few decades of its introduction. The story of rapid expansion of tobacco
cultivation and trade is a fascinating story of Indian economic history.
Christopher Columbus came
across tobacco, when he arrived in Cuba accidently in 1492, while he was trying
to discover India. He witnessed the natives smoking some dry herb called by the
name “Tobaco” and “Tombac” in rituals and feast for pleasure. Later, Spanish
explorers saw tobacco agriculture in “Tabasco” region in Mexico by Mayan
people. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first
European to bring tobacco seeds to Europe in 1559 following orders of King
Philip II of Spain. Tobacco expanded in Africa in 1560s by Spanish and
Portuguese sailors, first to the coastal cities of continent and then from
there to the eastern and middle African countries.
As per historic evidence,
tobacco cultivation was initially introduced into two separate areas of India,
the present state of Gujarat (Surat-Broach area) and the state of Andhra
Pradesh (Masulipatam and interior) before 1,600 AD. The custom of smoking
tobacco (Hokah) spread rapidly in Mughal India after its introduction in 1604
or 1605. The cultivation and use of tobacco, proved to be a rich source of revenue for Mughals.
A British traveler Thomas
Bowrey, documented widespread use of tobacco in India and parts of South- east
Asia during 1669 and 1679 CE. As per his book, tobacco used to be included
among items given in gift to the faquirs (holy men) in northern India, and on
the Coromandel coast it was served with the betel leaf and at all Hindu
weddings. As per him, it was farmed in the Andhra region and around Madras and
exported to Achin in Sumatra & Java and Persian Gulf-Red Sea area.
The cultivation of tobacco
which initially began in the Gujarat and Andhra regions, quickly spread to
other areas of the country. During Jahangir's reign tobacco farming "began
to predominate over other crops" and soon the crop was grown almost
everywhere. Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, as well as northern and central India in
general saw the growth of tobacco cultivation through the seventeenth century.
By the end of the seventeenth century the consumption of tobacco, either
through smoking or chewing with Tambula, had spread throughout the diverse
strata of Indian society. Tobacco had become almost a necessity as much for the
aristocrat as the poor man and this domestic demand stimulated production. The
profits of tobacco farming were substantial for both the farmers who grew it
and the government that collected taxes from it.
Historical evidences
suggest the use of Tobacco for smoking in various forms (Cigar, Hookah) or
consumption in the form of Snuff. The whole of western world and Gulf nations
including Mughals were consuming the tobacco for smoking or as snuff. How and
when the use of Tobacco or its products as adjuncts in Tambula, came to
practice is worth investigating.
From linguistic,
archaeological, literary, and oral sources, it can be concluded that Tambula
chewing was practiced in South-East Asia in prehistoric times. From the
beginning centuries of the common era (CE) its use spread throughout the
region, and from the tenth century onwards, it appears Tambula was an integral part of various rituals and social gatherings. During the Dynasties of Jin (1115–1234 CE) and Yuan (1279–1368 CE)
in China, there were evidence of introduction of areca nut pills (Called
Muxiang Binglong Pill) for reinforcing vital energy.
Recent excavations at
Quseir al-Qadim, an ancient port located on the Red Sea coast of Egypt, proved the existence of a large-scale trade of areca nuts during 11-13 Century CE.
Considering the fact that Quseir al-Qadim lies in the main transit route of
Islamic trade between South and South-East Asia and North Africa, the
Mediterranean and Europe, it is the only evidence available on the use of Areca
nuts in the western countries in the medieval period.
By the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, the chewing of Tambula was established virtually
everywhere in tropical Asia. It was a symbol of indispensable politeness to be
offered to a guest in court or village, and as a central ritual symbol, as
digestive, dentifrice and mouth freshener, and as the relaxant that made life
more bearable-especially when traveling, warring, or otherwise short of food.
Areca nut and betel leaf frequently accompanied the dead during funerals. Betel
chewing and its ingredients were featured widely in healing rituals and
practices, in offerings to the ubiquitous spirits of the dead, and in every
social and ritual function. Areca nut and betel leaves were the essentials of
every ritual of courtship and marriage. At the marriage ceremony itself the
betel ingredients are usually presented as part of the bride-price. In Malay
and Sumatran weddings in the nineteenth century, an ornate "Areca
tree" comprised of betel leaves was carried in procession.
It was a common belief
that areca nut and the practice of Tambula chewing is native to India. However,
recent philological (based on linguistic studies) and archaeological evidence
casts doubt on this theory. However, the literary evidence continues to
support an Indian origin.
The earliest
archaeological evidence of areca nut use was found in “Spirit Cave” in
north-western Thailand. Radiocarbon dating of areca nuts found in those caves
confirmed that they belong to an era of 8776 to 7622 BCE (Before Common Era).
Linguistically, the widest range of words for ‘areca’ and ‘betel’ are found in
Indonesia, suggesting a possibility of origin in the region. Sireh, the most
widespread name for ‘betel’ in Malaysia, is not derived from either
Sanskrit/Pali or Indonesian roots, suggesting a possible independent
development in Malaysia. Chinese references go as far back as a second century
BCE. describing of Tambula chewing in Vietnam. By the T'ang period (618 - 907
CE), numerous Chinese references on the use and export of areca nut from the
Indonesian archipelago are available. The fact that the Chinese term for areca
nut since at least T'ang times was “pin-lang”. Perhaps this term was derived
from Malay “pinang” suggests that the area then dominated by Malay-speaking Sri
Vijaya (Ruling Sumatra, Malaya, western Borneo) was the major source of this
commodity.
A Chinese chronicle of the
first half of the sixth century (Book 54 of the History of the Liang Dynasty)
mention areca nut consumption in Indonesia. Persian descriptions of Tambula
chewing appeared in Indian literature of the eighth and ninth centuries. From
the tenth century onwards, literary sources provide plenty of evidence that
Tambula was widely used in the region. Champa (Vietnam) gave tribute to China
in the form of areca nuts in the tenth and eleventh centuries. The book purportedly
written at the end of the thirteenth century by king Ramkamhaeng, of the
Sukhothai Kingdom in Thailand, says ‘The people of this land of Sukhothai...
celebrate the Kathina (Buddhist festival celebrating the end of Monsoon rains)
ceremonies... with heaps of areca nuts”. The symbolical use of Tambula in
Cambodia, for example, can be traced to a legendary Prince Prah Thong who
marries a serpent princess. She gives the prince a Tambula as a pledge of her
trust, and since this time Tambula has been used in Cambodia to bond
relationships.
***
Tambula was a favorite
pastime of elite and royal family during Moghul era as well. Often the top-quality ingredients of Tambula (Areca nut, betel leaf, slaked lime, Catechu extract and selected spices) were used as royal gifts, exchanged between the various kings and emperors. The
areca nut with betel leaf was also used along with flowers and perfumed water while
welcoming guests and was the part of return gift to the departing visitor. The
Royal patronage to Tambula in the Indian subcontinent is evident from the
travelogues of Ibn Battuta, Abdul Piezzak and Niccolao Manucci (seventeenth century). Niccolao Manucci
refers to the allocation of revenue of Surat by emperor Shahjahan for his
daughter to meet her expenses on Tambula. He also mentions betel leaves were carried
to Persia by the designated ambassador of Aurangzeb. Shahbaj Khan, a Subedar of
Thane (1416 AD) issued official orders forcing the practice of offering Tambula
to a Brahmin as a mark of honour and a sign of betrothal. Tambula chewing
'prevailed especially among the nobles and magnates and kings', observed Marco
Polo in the thirteenth century. Old chronicles describe the meeting and
exchange of Tambula between Ahom viceroy in Western Assam, Satrajita and
Emperor Aurangzeb.
In Ain-I-Akbari, Abul Fazal elaborates the cultivation practices of betel leaf and provides description and properties of Bilhari, Kaker, Jaiswar, Kapuri, Kapukant, and Bangla varieties. As per his book, those variety of betel leaves with slaked lime (made out of oyster shells), catechu extract, slices of areca nut, ambergris, musk, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, and oyster shells at specified quantity make a perfectly balanced parcel of Tambula. Mughal manuals and pharmacopoeias specify the exact proportion in which the above-listed ingredients should be mixed to produce a perfectly balanced taste, aroma and mouth feel. As per those manuals, Tambula functions as mouth fresheners (mukhavasa) that adorned the breath with a sweet fragrance and thereby provide gladness to the heart, reduces stress and strengthens intellect.
The celebrations of feasts and festivities in the Mughal
imperial’s household was one of the sources of enjoyment and merry making to
the emperors as well as their women folk. Feasts were an important part of all
Mughal ceremonies, festivals and other occasions. Often, the royal ladies passed
the monotony of their lives by welcoming the guests. Tambula (pan) was the favorite
items of reception given to the guests of the royal ladies. Whenever the wives
of the nobles visited the ladies of emperor’s household, they were offered sweet
drinks (sherbet) and Tambula (pan) by the royal ladies.
Abdul Rezzak of Herat, the
ambassador from Samarkand (Uzbekistan) to the court of Deva Raya –II of
Vijayanagar kingdom in 1443 CE, attributed the virility of king to his habit of
chewing Tambula. He writes: "It deserves its reputation ... it lightens up
the countenance and excites an intoxication like that caused by wine. It
relieves hunger, stimulates the organs of digestion, disinfects breath, and
strengthens the teeth. It is impossible to describe, and delicacy forbids me to
expatiate on its invigorating and aphrodisiac qualities".
***
Due to numerous health benefits, its social acceptance,
popularity and the associated religious sanctity, Tambula consumption was
widespread among the general public and nobles. Elaborate rules were also
formulated on the consumption and use of Tambula and its ingredients.
Custom of removing the mid rib, tip and the petiole of
betel leaf before applying lime came to practice. It was recommended to spit
the saliva twice, while chewing Tambula.
The first mouthful of saliva was considered poison and the second one
was difficult to digest and thereafter it can be swallowed and believed to be
useful to the body.
Texts indicate that those fasting as a penance or as
part of a regime of regular religious observances (for example, ekādaśī) are
not to eat Tambula as per Dharmasindhu (1790 CE). Further, Itihāsopaniṣad, states
that a person giving funeral oblations to his ancestors should not consume
Tambula, although the deceased ancestor(s) may be offered Tambula. As per Dharmaśāstra,
ascetics, widows, and those performing penance or rites for their deceased
ancestors should not consume Tambula. Vṛddha Hārīta (Approximately 900 CE)
prescribes that a widow should give up adorning her hair, chewing Tambula, and
taking two meals a day, and should rather wear a white garment, rein in her
senses, and so on. Tambula consumption was forbidden for the persons suffering
from gum damage, tooth decay, eye ailments, hysteria, mental disorder and
rakt-pitta as per Bhavaprakasha written by Bhavamisra.
King Someswara III of the Chalukya dynasty, who ruled
Southern India (AD 1122-1133) has written an encyclopedic text called
Manasollasa. In that he has listed
twenty types of royal enjoyments. Among them perfumes and scented articles were
used in Snaana bhogah (enjoyment of bath), Tambula bhogah (enjoyment of betel
leaf chewing), Vilepana bhogah (enjoyment of anointing the body),
Maalyopabhogah (enjoyment of flower garlanding) and Dhupa bhogah (enjoyment of
incense). He has given an elaborate account of Tambula bhogah. It says,
areca-nuts obtained from Nailaavartti, Isvarpura and Kandikapura were
considered best. Betel leaves collected from one-year-old creeper nourished
with river water are considered best. Areca nuts were dried in shade and
perfumed with Musk water. Musk camphor, Kakkola (Piper cubeba also called tailed/ Java pepper), nutmeg, Khadirasara
(Catechu powder) blended with musk, sandal and camphor water were used as
ingredients of Tambula.
Jyotirnibandha written by Shivraj in AD 1524,
prescribes that three parts nut, two parts betel leaf, one-part catechu and
lime make an ideal Tambula. Apparently, the composition prescribed is based on
weight. As per this treatise, the Tambula prepared as per this formula, shall
produce pungency, bitterness, heat, sweetness, saltiness, power to remove vata,
possess antiseptic character, remove phlegm, excite passion, beautify the mouth,
purify the mouth, and remove all bad odour from the mouth. The work also
indicates that different numbers of areca nut consumption confer differing outcomes: one
produces happiness; two bear's fruit; three brings loss; four causes pain of
misery; six causes death. It also contains series of
rules about the appropriate numbers of Tambula to be included for distinct
ranks of recipient: 32 for the king; 24 for a tributary prince; 18 for a
son-in-law; 12 for a learned man; 10 for a bride; 8 for all respectable
people; 4 for ordinary people; 6 for enemies.
***
Tambula (aka, Betel quid) consumption was also associated with the
social status, and receiving areca nut with betel leaves from nobles and kings
was considered as an honour. Banabhatta, the scholar in the court of emperor
Harsha Vardhana, who reigned during 606–647 CE in north India, has given a
vivid description of poets, writers, dramatists and other creative artists
receiving Tambula from the emperor as a token of appreciation and honour in his
book, Kadambari. The Jyotirnibandha composed no later than 1524 CE, specifies
the number of betel leaves to be given based on the ranks of the recipient: 32
for the king; 24 for a tributary prince; 18 for a son-in-law; 12 for a learned
man; 10 for a bride; eight for all respectable people; four for ordinary
people; six for enemies.
Just after 630 CE, the Chinese pilgrim Hsiuan-tsang
arrived at the monastic university of Nalanda to study of Sanskrit and
Buddhism. In the biography of Hsiuan-tsang it was written that he was welcomed
by the senior Master of the Law, Silabhadra. He was lodged on the fourth story
of Buddhabhadra's house, in the courtyard of king Baladitya's college. After
having been entertained for seven days, he was assigned a quarters in a guest
house to the north of the house of Dharmapala Bodhisattva and his daily perquisites
were increased. Every day he was provided with 120 betel leaf-bunches, 20 areca
nuts, 20 nutmegs, one ounce of camphor, and one shang measure of mahasala rice.
This is evidence that even the scholars studying in one of the best research
University in the world at that time were chewing Tambula regularly.
Apparently, it was not only a privilege but was also a legitimate practice
followed by the renowned scholars during that time.
The extent of Tambula consumption could be assessed by
the volume of trade happening at that time. A work of the Gupta period (4-6th
Century CE) called Jambu-dvipa-prajñapti has enumerated eighteen prominent types
of merchants. Tamoli (Tambula sellers) were figured in that list along with
kumbhãra (potters), pattalla (silk-weavers), suvarnakãra (gold-smith), súpakãra
(hoteliers), gandharva (perfumers or singers), kasavana (barber) etc. This
clearly shows the importance and the volume of areca nut, betel leaf trade
happening in ancient India. The famous Mandasor Silk Weavers’ inscription dated
AD 473, reads “Now women-folk may be young and lovely, and they may have the
customary garland and Tambula and flowers to hand, but they will never go to
meet a lover in the trysting place unless they have first put on their two-piece
garment of silk”.
Over the years, the Tambula attained a status of
sanctity as well and found place in all the ritualistic practices. The
inscriptions and various treatise reveal that it received a religious sanction
of use in rituals and ceremonies and became an integral part of offerings to
the priests and god. It is about the same time (750 to 962 AD) the area of
cultivation of areca nut and betel vines expanded in south India in order to meet
the ever increasing demand. They also became an important commodity of trade
and commerce and earned significant revenue to the royal treasury. Due to the
enormous economic importance of areca nut and betel leaf, and the availability
of royal patronage, perhaps a significant effort has gone into the development
of systematic agro-practices for their cultivation.
Kalidasa (5th century CE), in his
Raghuvamsa while describing the march of Raghu, says that after defeating the
king of Kalinga, Raghu proceeded towards the south along the coast which was
adorned with areca nut trees indicating wide spread cultivation of areca
plantation in coastal Orissa.
Kashyapiyakrishisukti by Kashyapa (800 AD) has given
information on growing betel vine on high ground and betel nut on marshy land
and also in gardens. Vrikshayurveda of Surapala (1000 AD) points out that the
areca nut plants should be carefully planted at a distance of two to three
fore-arms. The treatise also warns that closer planting might result in
reduction in the yield, while planting at farther distance exposes to danger of
strong winds. Further, the trees like coconut and betel nut bear fruit when
manured with the powder of a fish and sesame.
Instances of granting land and betel leaves to the god
are found in ancient inscriptions. For example, an inscription from 1166 CE
records a land grant for betel leaf production for the god Chenna Keśava
(Inscription 13, lines 66–9, Kundangar 1939: 112). An inscription dated 1135 CE
mentions a gift of 500 betel leaves for service to the god Jakkeśvara
(Inscription 232, Hultzsch 1939: 236–7). Another inscription dated 1235 CE
details that the Yādava King Singhaṇadeva gave a grant for the betel leaves of the
god Bhāvaśuddhadeva (Inscription 18, line 64, Kundangar 1939: 153).
***
Please note:
Numerous
references to areca nut, betel leaf and Tambula (aka, Betel quid) are found in several ancient Sanskrit
texts such as Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Astanga Hridayam, Bhavaprakasa,
Harivamsa, Varahapurana, Panchatantra and Jataka tales. Several terms including
puga, pugi, ghonta, guvaka, kramuka, sramsi, cikkana, khapura are used to
denote areca nut in those treatises. These classical texts consider areca nut as
astringent and slightly sweet (kasaya), cold in potency (hima), helps taste
(rucya), Removes moisture and dirt of the mouth (asyakleda malapaha) and bad
taste (vaktravairsaya), creates dryness (ruksa), heavy for digestion (guru),
stimulates digestion (dipana), it is purgative (bhedi) and intoxicant (mohana).
Choorna of areca nut has been prescribed with several other medicinal
ingredients for treating liver ailments as per Charakasamhita, which was
believed to be written during 100 BCE to 200 CE. Mātrāśitīya (the recommended
daily regimens for well-being and hygiene), part of Charakasamhita recommends
the following,
“One desiring
clarity, taste and good smell should keep in his mouth the fruit of nutmeg,
musk seed, areca nut, tiled pepper, cardamom and clove, fresh betel leaf and
exudate of camphor”.
Several
beneficial attributes of betel leaf have been described in Susrutasamhita.
Vagbhata’s Astangasangraha describes the preparation of five drug groups and
preparations (Aragvadhadi gana, Syamadi gana, Virecana gana, Lodhrasava and
Bijakasara arista) for treating various ailments including leprosy, vomiting,
skin diseases, itching, diabetes, Dysuria, poisoning, Anorexia, abdominal
tumours, obesity, anaemia, worms, Dropsy, Haemorrhoids, Jaundice, heart
disease, Gout etc. These clearly demonstrates that areca nut and betel leaf
were the most important ingredients for making various formulations for
treating numerous ailments and diseases in Ancient India.
Its mention
in Vatsayana’s Kamasutra and Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha itself reflects the
antiquity and popularity of the practice of chewing Tambula. As per Vatsayana’s
Kamasutra, a civilized man (nāgaraka) cleans his teeth and perfumes himself in
the morning, uses mouthwash, and chew some Tambula to make himself presentable.
The Tambula chewing is considered as an integral part of an elaborate sexual
act as per the Kamasutra. In the Kāmasūtra, it is suggested that a lover should
use Tambula both as a precursor to sexual relations, at various points during
the sexual act, and as a post-coital activity marking a ritualistic finish and
freshening of the breath.
·
Wide spread use of Tambula (Popularly known as “pan”) in
Indian culture was best described by Shree M. Gowda, the Deputy Superintendent,
Government Gardens, Lal Bagh, Bangalore, in his monograph on “The story of pan
chewing in India” which got published in BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS, Harvard
university in 1951. He writes, “there is no ceremony, there is no occasion,
there is not a day in an Indian's life where the pan does not play its part.
The happiest part of honeymoons, the happiest part of married life is spent
over pan. The young couples, on the day's work well done, retreating to their
seclusion after meals, talk out their hearts and pour out their affection while
the bashful young wife prepares pan quid with selected leaves. The parents, in
Indian families, plan out and discuss the day's outcome of work, the family
affairs, children, their education, over pan; while children cluster about
grandmother to hear fairy stories at leisure over her pan.” In the concluding
remarks he writes, “pan is chiefly used for chewing or for social purposes,
rather than as a narcotic or a drug”.
There was a widespread belief that Tambula confer
numerous health benefits. Perhaps this belief has emerged from various ancient
texts. An ancient medical compendium “Yogaratnakara” lists thirteen benefits of
consumption of Tambula; it removes
bad odor in the mouth: it expels phlegm; it expels flatulence; it expels worms;
it beautifies the mouth; it helps digestion; it is sour; it is bitter; it is
heating; it is sweet; it is salt; it is astringent; and it excites desire.
 |
| Thirteen attributes of Tambula described in “Yogaratnakara” |
The same has been quoted in Prastāvaratnakara composed
by Haridasa, Rājanighaņtu written by Narahari, Jyotirnibandha by Sivadāsa, and
the Suktimuktavali by Jalhaņa composed in 1257 CE (common era). However, one of the earliest
literatures describing the good qualities of Tambula is found in charter 77 of
the Brhatsamhita of Varāhamihira believed to be written in 500 CE in Sanskrit. It
says, “Tambula stimulates love, sets off the physical charm, creates
popularity, gives good smell to the mouth, strengthens the body and dispels
diseases arising from the phlegm”.
 |
| Charter 77 of the Brhatsamhita of Varāhamihira (CE 500) |
